Metabolism during desynchronized sleep tends, in fact, to be equal to or even larger than that of waking (131,132). Front Neurol. It is most likely an elementary brain activity in homeotherms and thus, if dreaming has a function, it probably plays a similar role in the human brain and in nonhuman brains as well. Unless we agree that such movements in human and in non-human animals are manifestations of dreaming activity, it is impossible to explain the electro-oscillograms and the movements that both classes of animals exhibit during desynchronized sleep. Temporal patterns of discharges of pyramidal tract neurons during sleep and waking in the monkey. Such a configuration is subsequently compared to memorized patterns and then, and only then, it can be identified by means of the conscious process. 118. The leading theory of dreaming in the early decades of this research was the psychoanalytic, which views dreams as highly meaningful reflections of unconscious mental functioning. With developments in understanding of the neurophysiology of REM sleep, new theories of dreaming were proposed. Our hypothesis is that the cerebellum is involved in overall corrections of the components of all kinds of behavior, including sleep. We propose that the function of dream sleep (more properly rapid-eye movement or REM sleep) is to remove certain undesirable modes of interaction in In people with arterial aneurisms such a high pressure may provoke their rupture. In cats, Baust (1971) recorded tachycardia starting 1 or 2 seconds before eye movements appear (38). The command character of theta waves is probably the reason why such potentials occur almost simultaneously in different brain structures. Braz J Med Biol Res 1996;29:1645-50. In 1944 Obhlmeyer, Brilmayer & Uhlstrung (10) observed that in humans penile erection occurs during sleep at intervals of 85 minutes, which is the average duration of a sleep cycle. eCollection 2019. Another hypothesis to account for desynchronized sleep function is that this phase of sleep is programmed to occur when central temperature is low and that it has a thermoregulatory function. Mol Brain Sci 1995;32:211-20. Christy B, Nathans D. DNA binding site of the growth factor-inducible protein Zif268. 66. With developments in understanding of the neurophysiology of REM sleep, new It may be more appropriate to explain the latter authors' results by reasoning that dreams are originated in memorized information and are, accordingly, closely related to events occurring before sleep. Pontine cholinergic neurons show fos-like immunoreactivity associated with cholinergically induced REM sleep. 53. 131. To discuss this issue we will concentrate only on a few hypotheses. Roffwarg HP, Adrien J, Herman J, Pessah M, Spiro R, Bowe-Anders C. The middle ear muscle activity in the neurophysiology and psychophysiology of the REM state. J Neurosci 1991;11:2804-11. Roussy F, Camirand C, Foulkes D, De Koninck J, Loftis M, Kerr NH. 72. 2021 Aug 30;24(2):543. doi: 10.4081/ripppo.2021.543. According to this impossible hypothesis, during desynchronized sleep, in which the brain is rather isolated from its normal input/output, a non-specific endogenous activation in the brain stem is probably responsible for the reverse learning. This causes the amygdala and hippocampus to become active, which help to influence the brain systems that control sensations, memories, and emotions. 40. C R S Soc Biol 1978;172:9-21. Sleep patterns during rearing under different environmental conditions in juveline rats. 130. 117. To what degree, and in what way, implications can be drawn from these findings for the psychology of dreaming is controversial. This author "thus proposes a psychoanalytical model of dreaming, in which dreams constitute a way of representing the individual's inner world with internal objects related with one another and with the self" (135). Jouvet M, Michel F, Courjon J. Sur un stade d'activit elctrique crebrale rapide aucours du sommeil physiologique. 100. 99. Dreams during REM sleep tend to be longer, more vivid, more story-like, and more bizarre than those during NREM sleep. Soja PJ, Lopez-Rodriguez F, Morales FR, Chase MH. As mentioned above, Plato, preceding by twenty four centuries one of the dogmas of psychoanalysis, believed that "forbidden" dreams, such as incestuous or criminal dreams, were only a way of doing incestual sex or killing someone without punishment. 81. Respiratory frequency decreases during the entire sleep cycle but is phasically activated during dreaming because it is a vegetative function that has to be increased in any behavior, including the oniric ones. A nerve growth factor-induced gene encodes a possible trancriptional regulatory factor. Considering that most dreams in rats (31,32) are related to olfaction, not to vision, potentials that resemble PGOs in the amygdala of this animal species should also be taken as signs of dreaming rather than PGOs. By comparing the program with the peripheral information, that tells it how the behavior is evolving, the cerebellum produces corrections, so that the execution can match the program. 90. This seems to be a highly improbably conception, among other reasons because, as dreaming is concerned, threatening events are as dangerous to the organism as bad news we hear and as crossing a street or watching a movie-film full of violence are as well. Neurology 1999;53:2193-5. HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help Proc Natl Acad Sci 1989;86:8737-41. Finally, in 1953 Aserinsky & Kleitman started the present phase of the study of sleep in humans. Mirmiran M, Van den Dungen H, Uylings HBM. Motoneuron inhibition is mild in the early post-birth days and increases according to a saturation curve (60). Our data with rats are quite consistent as to the variation of blood pressure and heart rate during oniric activity. Plenum Press, 1990. Although it has not been shown that the alpha-coeruleus nuclei are lesioned in these patients, it is tempting to consider that their lesion underlies such sleep disturbance. Regional cerebral glucose metabolic rate in human sleep assessed by positron emission tomography. 136. In cats, cortical electro-oscillograms are also desynchronized but in the hippocampus theta waves (that will be later described) predominate. By recording potentials from large ensembles of rat hippocampal neurons related to the body position in space (place cells) during behavioral tasks, Wilson & McNaughton (87) found that neurons that fired together when the animals occupied particular locations in the environment (hence the name place cells) also exhibited an increased tendency to fire together during subsequent sleep, in comparison to sleep episodes preceding the behavioral tasks. The latter are absolutely necessary for any neural activity to occur, inasmuch as the oxygen required by the nervous system amounts to 20% of the total oxygen consumption (near ten times as much as the average of the body as a whole). Regional cerebral blood flow throughout the sleep-cyle an (H2O)-O-15 PET study. Behav Brain Sci 2000;23:793-842. Bourgin P, Escourrou P, Gaultier C, Adrien J. WebHe says the function of dreams is that by reproducing difficult or unsolved life situations or experiences, the dream aids towards a solving or resolution of the problems. San Diego, 1973. 80. WebDream theories attempt to inform us of our deeper psychological states and shed light on the function of our dreams. According to this author, in children at the age of two, when the hippocampus, which is still in the process of development at birth, becomes functional, REM sleep takes on its interpretive memory function (134). Electrophysiological manifestations of wakefulness and desynchronized sleep in the rat. 91. 46. Control of upper airway motoneurons during REM sleep. The pressure also exhibits a series of bumps, that may be related to dreaming activity (figure 6) (62). Predicting Intention to Participate in Community Physical Activities for Adults with Physical Disabilities. In non-human animals the report regarding dreams is obviously impossible but, fortunately, a dream can be detected in both humans and other species by analyzing its motor, vegetative and electrophysiological manifestations, as will be described below. "Insects are also creatures that do sleep, so much so that they can be seen resting with no movements whatsoever. As a prevailing concept even today, dreams were considered premonitory, messages from the dead and mystical warnings. When any part of the brain programs a behavior it sends the program to the cerebellum. By measuring the voltage of the potential generated by the rotation it is possible to know if the object is near or far. Figure 9 illustrates an episode of olfactory and vibrissal movements. Inasmuch as all this relevant knowledge is entirely ignored, we hope the present review may help in rescuing it (4). An important contemporary of these authors, Charles Darwin, in his landmarking book Emotions in Man and Animals, published in 1872 and reedited several times in the twentieth century (6), states that "at least birds and mammals do dream", a concept that still remains unchallenged, despite which most researchers that carry out studies on sleep still hold that dreaming is specifically human. (57). Psychosomat Med 1975;37:147-59. Heart rate decreases down to nearly 150 bpm 1 or 2 seconds following the cessation of eye movements. Studi Psicologici e Clinici di un Alienista. Braun AR, Balkin TJ, Wesenten NJ, Carson RE, Varga M, Baldwin P, et al. Longitudinal studies. While the how and why of dreaming may be explored using physiological and biological methods, dreaming is also a subjective experience involving a form of mentation that can offer representations of an individual's internal world. Chaudhuri A. Neural activity mapping with inducible transcription factors. Neuroscience 1997;81:893-926. The meaning of dreams. (eds.) 116. This may be related to the presence of pet animals in most families in the Western countries and consequently this "subject" probably becomes the main thought of children. Geniculate spike activity in primate sleep and wakefulness. Disclaimer. Experientia 1964;20:1-3. During the first half of the twentieth century, despite the heavy influence of psychoanalysis, dreaming was again but sporadically studied scientifically. As any information consciously identified, a dream triggers a specific behavior, that we call an oniric behavior. There are other definitions of the word dream, too. Whereas Freud was convinced that dream forgetting was an active function of repression, Hobson, Pace-Schott & Stickgold (2000) attribute the failure to recall a dream to a state-dependent amnesia caused by aminergic demodulation of the sleeping brain (120). Sleep 1982;5:169-87. Behav Brain Res 1995;69:13-22. Matsuyama K, Kobaysahi y, Takakusaki M, Mosi S, Kimuta H. Termination mode and branching patterns of reticuloreticular and reticulospinal fibers of the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis in the cat: an anterograde PHA-L tracing study. 121. New findings on the neurological organization of dreaming: implications for psychoanalysis. Vertes & Eastman (2000), for instance, believe that the stressful conditions in experiments intended to demonstrate a role of desynchronized sleep and dreaming in consolidation of memory spoil the results (88). In ancient Greece, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle discussed about the meaning of dreams, concluding that the prevailing mistic and mythic concepts about them were incorrect. Darwin C. The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals. World Fed Sleep Res Soc Newsletter 1997;5:22-3. In cats, during movements related to dreams such hyperpolarization is reinforced by presynaptic inhibition of afferents to motoneurons. 36. These interneurons inhibit motoneurons by means of glycinergic synapses (glycine is a powerful inhibitory neurotransmitter), as shown by Soja et al. Jung R, Kornmller AE. Shiromani PJ, Lai yy, Siegel JM. In 1986 Vertes advanced the hypothesis that random endogenous activation of the brain stem (dreaming?) Jouvet M. The role of monoamines and acetylcholine-containing neurons in the regulation of the sleep-waking cycle. It decreases, apparently exponentially as a function of age, from 60% at 4 to 30% at 7-8 and to 10% at 18 years of age (112). Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited. 32. Dreaming has been a subject of cogitation since remote Antiquity. Changes in neuronal activity in association cortex of the cat in relation to sleep and wakefulness. Behav Brain Sci 2000;23:867-76. Although it may happen in any sleep phase, it prevails during the desynchronized phase. During REM sleep, several physiological changes also take place. eCollection 2017. For instance, zif-268 has been shown to induce the expression of a synapse-specific protein, synapsin II (101), and has been linked to the induction of hippocampal long-term potentiation (102,103) and other plasticity phenomena. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1997;102:125-31. Miyauchi S, Takino R, Fukuda H, Torii S. Electrophysiological evidence for dreaming. Head jerky movements may reflect vestibular dreams. (1987) suggested the occurrence of two kinds of eye movements during dreams, one associated to the very dream content, another of reflex nature, that may be involved in those occurring in children and in blind people but such a hypothesis is unlikely to be valid (35). De Sanctis, whose main research on sleep was the incorporation of sensory stimulation into dreams, states in his book that "by measuring the pulse and observing the movements in humans and other animals during sleep it is possible to detect the occurrence of dreaming and sometimes even to guess the dream content". It is interesting to consider that while muscles all over the body are paralyzed during sleep, respiration is little affected, except that some muscles in the upper respiratory airways are inhibited during sleep (44). Sakai K, Sastre JP, Salvert D, Touret M, Toyama M, Jouvet M. Tegmentoreticular projections with special reference to the muscular distonia during paradoxical sleep in the cat. However, in the animals subjected to a rich-environment zif-268 increased significantly from synchronized to desynchronized sleep but decreased from wakefulness to synchronized sleep. NeuroReport 1997;8:3-7. Doctoral thesis, Federal University of So Paulo, 1995. Pompeiano O. We hypothetize that theta waves are commanding signals that recruit in due sequence the circuits that generate wakefulness and desynchronized sleep and their components; their frequency and voltage generally increase in parallel with heart rate and intensity of movements (Valle & Timo-Iaria, unpublished results). In humans it has been shown that not only EEG desynchronization but also increase in vegetative functions, such as heart rate and ventilation (27), accompany mental activity. Modifications of recurrent discharge of the alpha motoneurons during sleep. Dement WC. For instance, during desynchronized sleep theta waves, in rats, are highly coherent in nucleus reticularis pontis oralis and in the fronto-parietal cortex, as well as with the hippocampus (78). It would appear that the intense activation of desynchronized sleep must overcome this demodulation and persist into subsequent waking, in order for very vivid dreams to be remembered. ", "As to the oviparous creatures, it is obvious that they sleep but it is impossible to state that they dream. 71. This neural activity is then interpreted by the brain as an internal activity. Interestingly enough, if body temperature in cats subjected to pontomesencephalic transection is lowered, the amount of desynchronized sleep increases. J Cerebr Blood Flow Metab 1991;11:502-7. Neuroscience 1997;78:13-38. 41. Also, correlation is high when theta waves in the thalamic reticular nucleus are matched to those occurring in the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis. In 1999, Ribeiro et al., assaying zif-268 expression in control rats and in rats subjected to a rich environment training, found that in control animals this gene protein generally decreased, mainly in the cerebral cortex, from wakefulness to synchronized sleep and from synchronized to desynchronized sleep (109). 73. Moruzzi G. Action inhibitrice du palocervelet sur les reflexes circulatoires et respiratoires d'origine sino-carotidinne. Erlbaum 1992. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the Pompeiano and his group produced important knowledge in this field (41,42), showing that the muscle contractions that produce the motor component of oniric behaviors, such as eye and limb movements, need that the pontine gigantocellularis nucleus be intact and activated. WebIn a nutshell, the theory states that the biological function of dreaming is to stimulate threatening events in order to rehearse the perception of threats and how to go about Different effects of several brain areas may affect dreaming in different ways. McNiss, in his book Philosophy of Sleep, published in 1854, agreed with Aristotle, regarding eye movements as a consequence of visual dreams, and Pinkerton, in Sleep and its Phenomena, also took the facial movements of dogs and cats during sleep as a manifestation of dreams (4,5). Rothschuch KR. Eye movements in humans predominate because vision is our main sensory channel and our visual memory is overwhelmingly predominant, resulting in preponderance of visual dreams. Neurosci Res 1993;17:127-140. Milbrandt J. Jouvet M. Programmation gntique itrative et sommeil paradoxal. 87. Several theories claim that dreaming is a random by-product of REM sleep physiology and that it does not serve any natural function. eCollection 2021 Aug 12. According to Hobson, Pace-Schotter & Stickgold (2000), since image studies show activation of "limbic" and "paralimbic" structures of the forebrain during desynchronized sleep, as compared to wakefulness (120,126-128), emotion may be a primary shaper of dream plots, rather than playing a secondary role plot instigation. Roffwarg HP, Herman J, Lamstein S. The middle ear muscles: predictability of their phasic action in REM sleep from dream recall. Brain warning function for REM-sleep. Instead, they thought that dreams were not provoked by spirits, ghosts or gods, which took over the mind to express themselves through dreaming. Silent functional magnetic resonance imaging demonstrates focal activation in rapid eye movement sleep. Generally, in humans oniric activity is expressed as eye movements, what is obviously linked to vision as the main human sensory channel.
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